Ms. Fraedrich, your study is titled “From Pilot to System”. What motivated you and your team to investigate exactly that?
The starting observation was straightforward: on-demand services are a reality in many regions, but the discussion is still heavily shaped by pilot-project logic and operational metrics. Assessments tend to be blanket judgements – either a silver bullet or inefficient additional traffic. We were interested in what role these services actually play within the public transport system and under what conditions they deliver a measurable contribution. That framing was missing, and it matters – especially given tight public budgets and growing pressure on public transport.
How did you approach the methodology?
For the study, we analysed data from more than 50 on-demand services. Some of these are further differentiated internally – like the Hofer Landbus – which is why we ultimately looked at more than 100 service areas in relation to existing public transport and what we call “service quality”. This allowed us to systematically assess how effectively on-demand services perform in the areas where they operate.
What makes our study stand out: we had very broad support from transport authorities. Without them – and without the excellent data provided by both ioki and Via, which was genuinely unprecedented – this work would not have been possible.
What surprised you most in the data?
The extent to which these services have an impact, and how clearly they emerge as a piece of the public transport puzzle. I have been working on on-demand for many years, but only now could we close an important gap: value does not arise automatically – it comes from the role a service takes on within its specific system. The debate often centres on whether on-demand “works” or is “too expensive”. Both framings fall short. What matters is whether a service addresses a supply gap, improves connections, or creates accessibility in its specific spatial and operational context.
What does that mean for cities, municipalities and districts operating under budget pressure?
Especially as funding tightens, a system-level perspective on on-demand services is essential. The cost per trip is often high – but that alone does not tell you whether a service is economically viable. Fixed-route services are also an inefficient way to deliver public mobility in certain areas and at certain times. An either-or logic misses the potential of better integration across service types. The key question is: “What level of service can I achieve within a given budget across the whole system?”
You write that on-demand services without a clear objective remain expensive and low-impact. What do you mean by that?
On-demand can serve different functions: securing access, closing service gaps, providing new connections, or enhancing the quality of existing services – but not all at once. That is why a clear objective before designing a service is so important: what specific role should this service play, what problem should it solve? Only then can it be sensibly planned, scaled, and integrated.
Without that clarity, you risk setting up an on-demand service designed for everything and optimised for nothing – limited impact at high cost. On-demand becomes expensive and low-impact above all when its function within the overall system has not been clearly defined.
What should decision-makers take from the study for planning on-demand services?
The most important takeaway is a shift in perspective: on-demand should not be treated as an add-on, but as part of the overall public transport system. In practical terms, that means moving away from “on-demand vs. fixed route” and towards “target service level vs. resources available” – starting from the existing system and intervening where the greatest value can be created.
On-demand does not deliver its benefits automatically. It does so only where its function within the public transport system is clearly defined.
Three things are decisive: a clear objective solid integration into the wider public transport network, and planning that puts system-level benefit at the centre.
When those conditions are met, on-demand can make a real contribution – as a well-fitting component of public transport.
